Medicine

Heart failure encompasses a complex spectrum of cardiovascular disorders that compromise cardiac function and systemic perfusion. In small animal practice, pericardial effusion, mitral valve insufficiency, and aortic stenosis are important pathologies that may culminate in heart failure or predispose patients to significant hemodynamic compromise.

Electrocardiography (ECG) is a non-invasive diagnostic tool that records the electrical activity of the heart and is a cornerstone of perioperative monitoring in small animal surgery.

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is the most common primary cardiac disease in cats. Characterized by concentric hypertrophy of the left ventricle (LV) in the absence of another systemic or cardiac disease that could cause similar changes (e.g., systemic hypertension, hyperthyroidism), HCM can progress insidiously and lead to severe clinical complications, including congestive heart failure and arterial thromboembolism

Pyothorax, also known as thoracic empyema, is defined as the accumulation of purulent fluid in the pleural space. This condition commonly arises from bacterial infection and can rapidly progress to respiratory compromise if not diagnosed and treated in a timely manner.

Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) and transtracheal aspiration (TTA) are two minimally invasive procedures used to obtain lower airway and alveolar samples for cytological and microbiological evaluation. These techniques are particularly valuable in diagnosing respiratory conditions such as chronic bronchitis, pneumonia, fungal and parasitic infections, and interstitial lung diseases.

Pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE) is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in small animal patients. It involves the obstruction of pulmonary vasculature by a thrombus or other embolic material.

Vestibular disease is a common neurological presentation in small animal patients, characterized by disturbances in balance and orientation. Understanding the distinction between central (brainstem or cerebellar) and peripheral (inner ear or vestibulocochlear nerve) lesions is crucial for accurate diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment planning.

Accurate neurological localization is the cornerstone of diagnosing and managing neurological disorders in cats and dogs. By correlating clinical signs with specific neuroanatomical regions, veterinarians can narrow down differential diagnoses, optimize diagnostic testing, and initiate targeted treatments.

Myasthenia gravis (MG) is an autoimmune neuromuscular disorder characterized by impaired acetylcholine (ACh) transmission at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ). Animals affected by MG often present with episodic muscle weakness, exercise intolerance, and, in some cases, megaesophagus or other systemic signs.

Atlanto-axial (AA) instability, also referred to as atlantoaxial subluxation, is an important cause of cervical spinal cord compression in dogs, particularly in toy and small breeds. It involves abnormal articulation between the atlas (C1) and axis (C2), most often due to congenital malformations or trauma to the supporting structures (e.g., dens, ligaments).

Chronic enteropathies (CEs) in dogs and cats encompass a broad spectrum of disorders causing persistent or recurrent gastrointestinal (GI) signs such as vomiting, diarrhea, weight loss, and altered appetite. The term “chronic enteropathy” often is used synonymously with “inflammatory bowel disease (IBD),” but actually includes a range of pathologies that may or may not be immune-mediated.

Gastric acid plays a vital role in digestion, aiding in the breakdown of nutrients and the defense against ingested pathogens. However, excessive or prolonged acid secretion can predispose to peptic ulcer disease, reflux esophagitis, and other erosive gastropathies.

Hypoproteinemia, defined as a decrease in serum proteins (albumin and/or globulins), is a common finding in small animal medicine with a wide array of potential causes. Understanding the pathophysiology and carefully interpreting clinical data is vital for accurately diagnosing and managing patients.

Canine pancreatitis is a common, potentially life-threatening inflammatory condition of the pancreas. It can present acutely or become a chronic, smoldering disease, leading to significant morbidity when underdiagnosed or sub-optimally managed. In dogs, pancreatitis involves inappropriate activation of pancreatic enzymes, resulting in local pancreatic injury, peripancreatic inflammation, and potential systemic complications.

Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) is among the most common medical problems encountered in small animal practice, particularly in geriatric dogs and cats. Characterized by irreversible structural or functional changes in the kidneys that persist for three months or longer, CKD often presents with insidious clinical signs and requires a multifaceted approach to diagnosis, staging, and management.

Acute kidney injury (AKI), previously termed acute renal failure, is defined by a rapid decline in glomerular filtration rate (GFR) resulting in the accumulation of metabolic waste products, fluid imbalance, and electrolyte derangements. AKI is commonly encountered in small animal medicine and can progress to chronic kidney disease (CKD) if not appropriately recognized and managed.

Micturition, the process of bladder filling and emptying, is tightly regulated by a complex interplay between the nervous system and the lower urinary tract. Disruptions to these neural pathways or to the urethral sphincter apparatus can lead to disorders such as urinary incontinence or retention. One of the most common causes of urinary incontinence in spayed female dogs is Urethral Sphincter Mechanism Incompetence (USMI).

Hyperadrenocorticism, commonly referred to as Cushing’s disease, is a syndrome characterized by excessive production of glucocorticoids, primarily cortisol. In dogs, this condition frequently arises from either a pituitary adenoma (Pituitary-Dependent Hyperadrenocorticism, PDH) or an adrenocortical tumor (Adrenal-Dependent Hyperadrenocorticism, ADH).

Thyroid gland disorders are common endocrine pathologies in small animal practice. Dogs typically present with hypothyroidism—often a result of primary thyroid gland failure—whereas cats characteristically develop hyperthyroidism due to autonomously hyperactive thyroid nodules.

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is an endocrine disorder arising from deficient production or utilization of insulin, leading to hyperglycemia and a spectrum of associated metabolic derangements. Although it can affect multiple species, DM is a particularly important condition in small animal practice, especially among middle-aged to older dogs and cats.

Calcium is essential for numerous physiological processes, including neuromuscular transmission, blood coagulation, hormone secretion, and enzymatic function. Maintenance of normal serum calcium levels relies on the interplay of parathyroid hormone (PTH), vitamin D, and calcitonin, together with organ systems such as bone, kidneys, and the intestinal tract.

Immune-Mediated Hemolytic Anemia (IMHA) is a common cause of hemolysis in dogs (less so in cats) and represents a serious, potentially life-threatening condition. The disease involves an inappropriate immune response directed against the animal’s own red blood cells (RBCs), leading to their premature destruction.

Iron deficiency anemia (IDA) is a common microcytic, hypochromic anemia arising from inadequate total body iron. In small animals, chronic blood loss—often from the gastrointestinal (GI) tract—represents the primary cause. This lesson explores the pathogenesis of iron deficiency anemia, focusing on the underlying mechanisms driving iron depletion and the characteristic laboratory findings that facilitate diagnosis in canine and feline patients.

Von Willebrand disease (vWD) is the most common inherited hemostatic defect in dogs (and less commonly reported in cats). It arises from a quantitative or qualitative deficiency of von Willebrand factor (vWF), a plasma glycoprotein crucial for platelet adhesion. vWD commonly manifests as mucosal bleeding episodes of variable severity.

Leptospirosis is a globally distributed zoonotic disease caused by pathogenic spirochetes of the genus Leptospira. In small animal medicine, the disease is of particular concern in dogs, though cats can be infected less commonly with typically milder or subclinical disease.

Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP) is a complex, immune-mediated disease of cats caused by feline coronavirus (FCoV). While many cats infected with FCoV remain asymptomatic or develop mild, transient GI or respiratory signs, a small percentage progress to FIP—a fatal condition characterized by pyogranulomatous inflammation in various tissues. FIP often presents a diagnostic challenge, and definitive treatment options remain limited.

Brucellosis is a zoonotic infection caused by the genus Brucella, gram-negative coccobacilli that can infect various mammalian species, including small animals and humans.

Lymphoma (also termed lymphosarcoma) is one of the most frequently diagnosed malignancies in dogs and cats, originating from lymphoid tissues (lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow, etc.).

Oral tumors are a clinically significant group of neoplasms in small animal practice, frequently encountered in middle-aged to older dogs and cats. These masses can originate from various oral tissues (gingiva, palate, tongue, tonsils) and include benign, locally aggressive, and malignant tumors.

Doxorubicin (also known as Adriamycin) is a cornerstone chemotherapeutic agent in small animal oncology, used to treat a variety of tumors, including lymphomas, sarcomas, and carcinomas. It is part of the anthracycline antibiotic family and acts through multiple mechanisms to inhibit tumor cell growth. However, doxorubicin’s therapeutic benefits are often balanced against its significant toxicity profile—most notably cardiotoxicity in dogs and renal concerns in cats.

Abdominal ultrasound is a fundamental, non-invasive imaging modality for evaluating the liver and kidneys in small animal practice. By assessing parenchymal echogenicity, organ architecture, and vascular patterns, ultrasound guides clinicians in diagnosing and monitoring hepatic and renal disorders—essential knowledge for veterinarians, including those pursuing Membership in the Australian and New Zealand College of Veterinary Scientists (MANZCVS) in Small Animal Medicine.

Thoracic radiography is a cornerstone imaging modality for evaluating respiratory diseases in dogs and cats. By systematically interpreting pulmonary patterns, vascular changes, and thoracic structural alterations, clinicians can narrow down differential diagnoses and guide additional testing or therapy.

Abdominocentesis—also termed paracentesis—is a diagnostic and sometimes therapeutic procedure used to obtain fluid from the peritoneal cavity. It is particularly useful in evaluating patients with suspected hemoabdomen, ascites, peritonitis, or other effusions.

Acute collapse in dogs and cats is a dramatic and often frightening event where an animal suddenly loses the ability to support its weight. It can range from transient weakness and prostration to complete unconsciousness (syncope).

Electrolyte and acid-base imbalances are common in small animal practice and significantly influence patient morbidity and mortality. They may arise from primary organ dysfunction (renal, gastrointestinal, endocrine) or as secondary complications of systemic diseases or iatrogenic causes.

Passing the Membership Examination of the Australian and New Zealand College of Veterinary Scientists (ANZCVS) in Small Animal Medicine is a significant milestone in your veterinary career. Here are practical tips and strategies to help you succeed in both the written and oral components of the exam.